How a Plant Works

Sources & further reading

Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., & Smith, M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/4/x0490e/x0490e00.htm

Brundrett, M. C., & Tedersoo, L. (2018). Evolutionary history of mycorrhizal symbioses and global host plant diversity. New Phytologist, 220(4), 1108–1115. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14976

Brust, G. (2023, July 20). Tomato pollination and bumblebee visits. University of Maryland Extension. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/tomato-pollination-and-bumblebee-visits

Cheesman, A. W., Cox, P., Jones, S., Middleby, K. B., Cernusak, L. A., & Franks, P. J. (2026). Influence of vapour pressure deficit and CO₂ on the thermal sensitivity of stomatal function in tropical trees. New Phytologist. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.71249

Clark, M. A., Douglas, M., & Choi, J. (2018). Biology 2e. OpenStax, Rice University. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/

Cooley, H., & Vallejo-Marín, M. (2021). Buzz-pollinated crops: A global review and meta-analysis of the effects of supplemental bee pollination in tomato. Journal of Economic Entomology, 114(2), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toab009

Duddek, P., Ahmed, M. A., Javaux, M., Vanderborght, J., Lovric, G., King, A., & Carminati, A. (2023). The effect of root hairs on root water uptake is determined by root–soil contact and root hair shrinkage. New Phytologist, 240(6), 2484–2497. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19144

Dunn, B., Singh, H., & Leckie, R. (2017). Mycorrhizal fungi (HLA-6449). Oklahoma State University Extension. https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/mycorrhizal-fungi

Ha, M., Morrow, M., & Algiers, K. (n.d.). Cohesion-tension theory. In Botany. LibreTexts. Retrieved September 22, 2026, from https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Botany/Botany_(Ha_Morrow_and_Algiers)/04%3A_Plant_Physiology_and_Regulation/4.05%3A_Transport/4.5.01%3A_Water_Transport/4.5.1.03%3A_Cohesion-Tension_Theory

Hacke, U. G., Sperry, J. S., Pockman, W. T., Davis, S. D., & McCulloh, K. A. (2001). Trends in wood density and structure are linked to prevention of xylem implosion by negative pressure. Oecologia, 126(4), 457–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420100628

Klatt, B. K., Holzschuh, A., Westphal, C., Clough, Y., Smit, I., Pawelzik, E., & Tscharntke, T. (2014). Bee pollination improves crop quality, shelf life and commercial value. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281(1775), Article 20132440. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2440

Liu, J., & van Iersel, M. W. (2021). Photosynthetic physiology of blue, green, and red light: Light intensity effects and underlying mechanisms. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, Article 619987. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.619987

McCree, K. J. (1971). The action spectrum, absorptance and quantum yield of photosynthesis in crop plants. Agricultural Meteorology, 9, 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-1571(71)90022-7

Michaels, T., Clark, M., Hoover, E., Irish, L., Smith, A., & Tepe, E. (2022). The science of plants: Understanding plants and how they grow. University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. https://open.lib.umn.edu/horticulture/

Mississippi State University Extension Service. (n.d.). Can I use a vibrating toothbrush rather than the expensive electric pollinators? Retrieved August 11, 2026, from https://extension.msstate.edu/agriculture/crops/commercial-horticulture/greenhouse-tomatoes/can-i-use-vibrating-toothbrush-rather-the-expensive-electric-pollinators

Moore, K. A., & Bradley, L. K. (Eds.). (2022). Botany. In North Carolina Extension Gardener handbook (2nd ed.). NC State Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/3-botany

National Weather Service. (n.d.). Dew. In NOAA National Weather Service glossary. Retrieved September 22, 2026, from https://forecast.weather.gov/glossary.php?word=dew

Nemali, K. (2018). Understanding the pores of a soilless substrate (HO-287-W). Purdue University Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/HO/HO-287-W.pdf

Nishimoto, Y., Lu, N., Ichikawa, Y., Watanabe, A., Kikuchi, M., & Takagaki, M. (2023). An evaluation of pollination methods for strawberries cultivated in plant factories: Robot vs hand. Technology in Horticulture, 3, Article 19. https://doi.org/10.48130/TIH-2023-0019

Ollerton, J., Alarcón, R., Waser, N. M., Price, M. V., Watts, S., Cranmer, L., Hingston, A., Peter, C. I., & Rotenberry, J. (2009). A global test of the pollination syndrome hypothesis. Annals of Botany, 103(9), 1471–1480. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcp031

Ollerton, J., Winfree, R., & Tarrant, S. (2011). How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals? Oikos, 120(3), 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x

Pennisi, B. V. (2022). Growing indoor plants with success (Bulletin 1318). University of Georgia Cooperative Extension. https://fieldreport.caes.uga.edu/publications/B1318/growing-indoor-plants-with-success/

Pundt, L. (2017). Pollination of greenhouse tomatoes. University of Connecticut Extension. https://ipm.cahnr.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3216/2022/12/2017pollinationofgreenhousetomatoes-1.pdf

Purcell, L. (2021, August 24). How do trees use water? Purdue Landscape Report, 21-14. https://purduelandscapereport.org/article/how-do-trees-use-water/

Roth-Nebelsick, A., & Krause, M. (2023). The plant leaf: A biomimetic resource for multifunctional and economic design. Biomimetics, 8(2), Article 145. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics8020145

Seeds of Diversity Canada. (n.d.). Greenhouse sweet and hot peppers (Capsicum annuum). Pollination Canada. Retrieved September 22, 2026, from https://seeds.ca/pollinator/bestpractices/greenhouse_peppers.html

Smith, S. E., & Smith, F. A. (2011). Roles of arbuscular mycorrhizas in plant nutrition and growth: New paradigms from cellular to ecosystem scales. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 62, 227–250. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103846

Starbuck, C. J. (2009, June 1). Guttation: A pressure relief for plants. Missouri Environment and Garden. University of Missouri Integrated Pest Management. https://ipm.missouri.edu/meg/2009/6/Guttation-A-Pressure-Relief-for-Plants/index.cfm

Sugano, S., Ishii, M., & Tanabe, S. (2024). Adaptation of indoor ornamental plants to various lighting levels in growth chambers simulating workplace environments. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 17424. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67877-y

Sussmilch, F. C., & McAdam, S. A. M. (2017). Surviving a dry future: Abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated plant mechanisms for conserving water under low humidity. Plants, 6(4), Article 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants6040054

Takahashi, F., Kuromori, T., Urano, K., Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, K., & Shinozaki, K. (2020). Drought stress responses and resistance in plants: From cellular responses to long-distance intercellular communication. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, Article 556972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.556972

Tan, X., & Zwiazek, J. J. (2019). Stable expression of aquaporins and hypoxia-responsive genes in adventitious roots are linked to maintaining hydraulic conductance in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) exposed to root hypoxia. PLOS ONE, 14(2), Article e0212059. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212059

Tan, X., Liu, M., Du, N., & Zwiazek, J. J. (2021). Ethylene enhances root water transport and aquaporin expression in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) exposed to root hypoxia. BMC Plant Biology, 21, Article 227. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-021-02995-7

Torres-Ruiz, J. M., Jansen, S., Choat, B., McElrone, A. J., Cochard, H., Brodribb, T. J., Badel, E., Burlett, R., Bouche, P. S., Brodersen, C. R., Li, S., Morris, H., & Delzon, S. (2015). Direct X-ray microtomography observation confirms the induction of embolism upon xylem cutting under tension. Plant Physiology, 167(1), 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.249706

University of Maryland Extension. (2023, March 13). Overwatered indoor plants. Home and Garden Information Center. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/overwatered-indoor-plants

University of Minnesota Extension. (n.d.). Lighting for indoor plants and starting seeds. Retrieved September 22, 2026, from https://extension.umn.edu/planting-and-growing-guides/lighting-indoor-plants

University of New Hampshire Extension. (2025, January 15). How can I increase the humidity indoors for my houseplants? https://extension.unh.edu/blog/2025/01/how-can-i-increase-humidity-indoors-my-houseplants

Vallejo-Marín, M. (2022). How and why do bees buzz? Implications for buzz pollination. Journal of Experimental Botany, 73(4), 1080–1092. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erab428

van der Kooi, C. J., Reuvers, L., & Spaethe, J. (2023). Honesty, reliability, and information content of floral signals. iScience, 26(7), Article 107093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.107093

van Ieperen, W., van Meeteren, U., & Nijsse, J. (2002). Embolism repair in cut flower stems: A physical approach. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 25(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(01)00146-1

Venturas, M. D., Sperry, J. S., & Hacke, U. G. (2017). Plant xylem hydraulics: What we understand, current research, and future challenges. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 59(6), 356–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/jipb.12534

Whiting, D., Roll, M., & Vickerman, L. (2016). Plant physiology: Photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration (CMG GardenNotes #141). Colorado State University Extension. https://cmg.extension.colostate.edu/Gardennotes/141.pdf

Zhang, Z., Zhu, L., Li, D., Wang, N., Sun, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, K., Li, A., Bai, Z., Li, C., & Liu, L. (2021). In situ root phenotypes of cotton seedlings under phosphorus stress revealed through RhizoPot. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, Article 716691. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.716691